The proliferation of lithium-ion batteries and the products they power, from vaping devices to electric vehicles, are creating new hazards for the global marine transport industry. The research community is stepping in to help ship owners and other stakeholders navigate this emerging risk.
In late December, a cargo ship carrying nearly 2,000 tons of lithium-ion batteries caught fire in waters off the coast of Alaska. The Genius Star XI had been crossing the Pacific, bound for San Diego, when a fire was discovered on 25 December in a hold loaded with batteries; the shifting of cargo due to rough seas was initially thought to have triggered the blaze. Three days later, fire was discovered in another hold filled with lithium-ion batteries. Authorities ordered the vessel, with a crew of 19, to remain offshore as a specialized marine firefighting unit determined how to manage the fire. As of early January, the ship remained in a protected anchorage away from other marine traffic as firefighters monitored the onboard blaze, which continued to burn. No injuries were reported.
The predicament of the Genius Star XI revealed a key aspect of the global supply chain. The ease of one-click online shopping has revolutionized the way we buy goods, with packages arriving promptly on our doorsteps. That delivery process strives to appear seamless, but it’s not; goods still need to move around the world to get from manufacturer to market, and the vast majority of them do so over seas and oceans. Approximately 80% of globally traded goods are transported via marine vessels, according to Statistica, an industry data source, contributing to a significant surge in cargo volume, which has tripled since 1990. To meet demand, the capacity of merchant fleets worldwide has increased by 1,500% since 1968, according to Allianz Global Corporate & Specialty.
The shipping industry has witnessed a reduction in general loss trends over the past decade, largely due to increased safety measures like improved regulations, advanced technology and enhanced risk management. However, fire incidents have not followed this trend; major fire events involving large vessels, such as container ships and car carriers, persist. In the past decade, over 200 fire incidents were reported on marine vessels, with 64 vessels experiencing total losses due to fire in the last five years. Fire has emerged as the most expensive cause of loss for marine vessels, underscoring its significance as a safety concern in the shipping industry.
The proliferation of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in the maritime sector has further compounded safety concerns among vessel operators. The global drive toward decarbonization and electrification has led to an increased use of LIBs in a wide range of products, from battery energy storage systems to electric vehicles and consumer electronics. While many of these batteries are transported safely every day, their inherent risks can pose a significant threat during maritime transit, particularly when the batteries are used, defective, damaged or improperly handled.
The surge in LIB usage necessitates a proactive reassessment of safety protocols within the maritime industry. While existing regulations provide a foundation, they fall short in comprehensively addressing the evolving risks posed by these batteries. Research efforts, including those at the Fire Protection Research Foundation, are underway to define the scope and complexity of this problem, and to provide stakeholders with data and insights to help them reduce and prevent maritime incidents involving lithium-ion batteries.
Regulatory gaps
According to vessel operators, the number of LIB-related incidents has escalated in recent years, emphasizing the need for comprehensive safety measures to address these fires. In addition to the Genius Star XI incident, other recent events, including three from 2022, highlight the safety hazards associated with the transport of new LIB-based products, usage of battery-powered equipment, and shipping of used or damaged batteries for recycling or disposal.
In February 2022, the cargo ship Felicity Ace, carrying over 4,000 new and used vehicles, caught fire at sea off the coast of the Azores. The crew of 22 was saved after abandoning ship, but the vessel sank after the intense fire burned for several days. Investigators were unable to determine the exact cause of the fire, but the electric vehicles onboard were suspected as a likely source and were thought to have contributed to the intensity of the fire. The loss of the vessel and cargo was estimated at over $400 million.
In May 2022, a fire broke out on the barge CMT Y Not 6, under tow in Delaware Bay off the coast of New Jersey. The vessel was carrying a load of household appliances for scrap. The fire was extinguished after 24 hours, with no injuries or pollution reported. The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) determined that the probable cause of the fire was the ignition of combustible material by an undetermined source, such as sparking from shifting metallic cargo, self-heating of the cargo, improperly prepared cargo, or damaged LIBs. According to published reports, the response to the fire constituted one of the largest firefighting operations ever undertaken in Delaware Bay.
In November 2022, the S Trust, an 800ft tanker, caught fire while docked in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. The NTSB determined that the fire was caused by unattended LIB-powered handheld radios charging on the tanker’s bridge. The crew of 23 was not injured during the fire, but this incident could have resulted in a very different outcome had the fire occurred while the vessel was at sea.
Fires at sea are a critical safety concern because assistance may be hundreds of miles and several days away, leaving many crews alone to fight fires with only the resources onboard. Damaged or defective lithium-ion batteries have the potential to enter into an uncontrollable self-heating state called thermal runaway, leading to fires or explosions. These incidents are especially concerning due to their rapid growth potential, release of toxic gases, intense heat emitted from fires, and the substantial quantities of water required to control them, which may cause the ship to become unstable and possibly sink. Additionally, once ignited, lithium-ion batteries can be challenging to extinguish and are capable of reigniting hours or days later, complicating response efforts.
Standards developers are taking note of these evolving hazards. NFPA technical committees are working to ensure that updates are made to address LIB safety concerns in all the documents relevant to the maritime environment, including NFPA 301, Code for Safety to Life from Fire on Merchant Vessels; NFPA 303, Fire Protection Standard for Marinas and Boatyards; and others. Internationally, regulations governing hazardous material transport, including maritime transport, adhere to the U.N. Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods: Model Regulations. The International Maritime Dangerous Goods (IMDG) Code, mandatory under the SOLAS Convention since 2004 – SOLAS, or Safety of Life at Sea, has existed since 1914 – specifies regulations for packaged hazardous materials in maritime transport. Additionally, SOLAS addresses ship construction, equipment and operation criteria for international voyages, including regulations on the carriage of hazardous materials and fire protection.
While these codes and regulations establish the foundation for safety on marine vessels, a significant gap exists between innovation and regulatory guidance because of the speed of technological advancements and the meticulous procedures necessary to create suitable and well-informed regulations. Despite the regulations in place, many vessel operators find them to be inadequate for proper protection against fires in lithium-ion battery-based cargo, and the handling of fires in that cargo when they occur.
One result is that stakeholders in the maritime sector are increasingly voicing safety concerns as the volume of LIB-based cargo surges. Combating LIB-related fires presents challenges due to the sheer size of vessels, the quantity of cargo aboard ships, limited access to fires in containers and uncertainties surrounding firefighting effectiveness. Beyond compliance with SOLAS regulations, vessel operators are investigating additional steps – including strategic stowage locations, quantity control and additional fire-safety measures such as enhanced detection and supplemental firefighting tools – that could reduce the threat surface on marine vessels.
One important discussion focuses on the stowage and segregation of potentially hazardous cargo including batteries. The IMDG Code regulates dangerous goods stowage on container and ro-ro ships – industry shorthand for ‘roll-on/roll-off’, referring to vessels that carry wheeled cargo such as vehicles – and are usually designated as ‘stowage category A’ for battery and energy storage system (ESS) transport. This designation allows for on-deck or below-deck carriage. Below-deck stowage, especially for lithium-ion battery-based cargos, poses challenges due to limited carbon-dioxide extinguishing options and strict safety protocols. Consequently, many operators exclusively transport LIB ESS (UN3536) on deck to enable frequent inspections, better monitoring and easier manual firefighting access. But on-deck stowage includes its own challenges, including exposure to direct sunlight that can elevate temperatures inside containers, affecting lithium-ion battery stability. Factors ranging from container size, ESS casing strength and vent locations also influence cargo placement on ships. Stakeholders are considering limiting cargo quantity to minimize ship risk, although the effectiveness of additional measures remains uncertain in reducing risk and consequences.
Another important discussion focuses on firefighting capabilities. Firefighting on a container ship can be extremely challenging; the sheer size of the vessels – some are more than four football fields long – and the density of cargo can make it difficult to reach a fire quickly, and the contained nature of the space can make firefighting operations especially hazardous. All of this is further complicated when the cargo includes large quantities of lithium-ion batteries.
If the cargo is placed in the cargo hold, there is access to a carbon-dioxide suppression system. But these systems only get one shot at extinguishing the fire and have been shown to have questionable effectiveness on battery-related hazards. In response to this gap, many container ship operators are adding supplemental firefighting systems onboard their vessels that go beyond SOLAS requirements. These systems can include on-deck fire monitors, thermal-imaging cameras and new watermist suppression technology. These additional systems were not put in place specifically for ESS or battery transport but rather to provide additional safety for transporting all dangerous goods and to decrease risk to personnel and the vessel.
Additional battery hazards
The hazards shared by new LIBs can be exacerbated when the batteries are used, recalled, recycled or damaged, and this problem is also under discussion among maritime stakeholders. LIBs that are to be disposed of or recycled can be transported as UN 3480, ‘Lithium-ion batteries including lithium-ion polymer batteries,’ or UN 3481, ‘Lithium-ion batteries contained in equipment including lithium-ion polymer batteries,’ according to special provision 377, which specifies the applicable packing instructions for batteries that are marked for recycling or disposal. However, since there is currently no means of determining the condition of used batteries, ship operators consider them to present an additional risk given the uncertainty around their condition and stability.
While it is ultimately up to each shipping line to decide if it is willing to transport damaged batteries, some are requiring additional safety precautions or insurance to carry them on their vessels, while others are opting to not ship them at all, especially if the batteries are still housed in the original equipment they powered, due to the inability to evaluate their status or stability. Despite the clear concern among ship operators that the current transport regulations do not adequately address the risk of transporting used, recycled, recalled, damaged or defective batteries, the demand for their safe transport continues to rise.
As the maritime industry grapples with these challenges, collaborative initiatives have emerged with the goal of preventing or minimizing the impact of future LIB-related fires on marine vessels. The National Chemical Transportation Safety Advisory Committee (NCTSAC), a federal advisory committee that makes recommendations to the Secretary of Homeland Security through the Commandant of the U.S. Coast Guard, has formed a subcommittee to address the growing safety concerns around the maritime transportation of lithium batteries. The subcommittee is working with maritime subject-matter experts to review LIB safety issues such as proper cargo identification, safe packaging, cargo segregation, fire detection and monitoring, crew training and firefighting technologies. These complex safety issues involve all maritime transportation modes including container vessels, cargo vessels, car carrying vessels, passenger ferry vessels and barges. Each of these transport methods presents different challenges under review by the subcommittee, which will make its recommendations to the Secretary of Homeland Security in January 2025.
Other governmental bodies, research institutions, and industry-related organizations around the world are conducting or contributing to studies, assessments or research initiatives with respect to the hazards associated with LIBs or related cargo during marine transport. The Fire Protection Research Foundation, for example, in collaboration with the Research Institutes of Sweden (RISE) and FSL Consulting, was recently contracted by the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Directorate of Transport Canada, the federal department that oversees road, rail, marine and air transportation in the country, to conduct a hazard assessment and regulatory analysis of ESS marine transport. These efforts collectively aim to provide information, insights and recommendations to inform regulatory bodies and stakeholders of paths forward for safe battery transport.
Looking ahead, the industry also faces the challenge of effectively managing used or end-of-life battery transport as the volumes of retired batteries increase. The volume of LIBs reaching end of life and available for recycling is expected to grow tenfold by 2030, with roughly 138GWh, or the equivalent of 1.5 million electric vehicles. While used LIB quantities are still low enough to enable some vessel operators to decline their transport, this situation will not exist for long. Real solutions for either assessing the health and stability of used batteries or additional layers of protection are required, as the demand for transport over the full lifecycle of LIBs continues.
One encouraging development is that we are seeing regulatory progress that is in alignment with the policies and current practices of vessel operators. Updates to the IMDG Code designating stowage category D (on-deck only) for LIBs installed in cargo transport units represent a positive step toward safer battery-based cargo transport. These regulations will become mandatory in 2026.
Collaborative efforts, ongoing research and proactive safety measures are imperative to safeguard maritime operations, mitigate fire risks and ensure the safe transportation of lithium-ion batteries globally. The impending recommendations from NCTSAC and ongoing research efforts hold the promise of bolstering safety measures, charting a path toward safer marine transport in the face of evolving technological advancements.
About the Author
Victoria Hutchison is a research project manager at the Fire Protection Research Foundation, the research affiliate of NFPA. Victoria conducts, manages and facilitates research on behalf of the NFPA mission on a variety of fire protection and life safety related issues.
Matthew Barker
Matthew Barker is a Senior Chemical Engineer in the Industrial Chemical Safety Division at NFPA. He has a Bachelor of Science degree in Marine and Environmental Science from the United States Coast Guard Academy and a Master of Science in Chemical Engineering from Yale University. He began his career with NFPA in 2021, where he is currently serving as the Staff Liaison for NFPA 307Standard for the Construction and Fire Protection of Marine Terminals, Piers, and Wharves,NFPA 30Flammable and Combustible Liquids Code, NFPA 400Hazardous Material Codeand several other codes and standards related to the classification of hazardous chemical data, fire protection in facilities that use or produce hazardous materials, and hot work operations.
Prior to NFPA, he served as an officer in the United States Coast Guard for over 23 years conducting maritime safety and security operations. Some of his Coast Guard chemical engineering career highlights include serving as a technical expert to the Chemical Transportation Advisory Committee, serving as a member of the Marine Chemist Qualification Board, leading the certification program for authorized marine vapor control systems at maritime petroleum loading facilities, and providing technical guidance on marine hazardous material packaging and transportation requirements.
Additionally, he is a certified Project Management Professional and a member of the Project Management Institute and the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
You must be logged in to post a comment.